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The through stratigraphy of the area of southeastern is a great example of Original Horizontality and the Law of Superposition, two important ideas used in relative dating. These strata make up much of the famous prominent rock formations in widely spaced protected areas such as and. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the , layered red , cliff-forming, vertically jointed, red , slope-forming, purplish , layered, lighter-red , and white, layered sandstone. Photo from , Utah. Relative dating is the science of determining the relative order of past events i. In geology, or , and can be used to correlate one with another. Prior to the discovery of in the early 20th century, which provided a means of , and used relative dating to of materials. Though relative dating can only determine the sequential order in which a series of events occurred, not when they occurred, it remains a useful technique. Relative dating by is the preferred method in and is, in some respects, more accurate. The , which states that older layers will be deeper in a site than more recent layers, was the summary outcome of 'relative dating' as observed in geology from the 17th century to the early 20th century. The regular order of the occurrence of fossils in rock layers was discovered around 1800 by. While digging the in southwest England, he found that fossils were always in the same order in the rock layers. As he continued his job as a , he found the same patterns across England. He also found that certain animals were in only certain layers and that they were in the same layers all across England. Due to that discovery, Smith was able to recognize the order that the rocks were formed. Sixteen years after his discovery, he published a of England showing the rocks of different eras. Principles of relative dating Methods for relative dating were developed when geology first emerged as a in the 18th century. Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geologic history and the timing of geologic events. Uniformitarianism The states that the geologic processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geologic time. In geology, when an intrusion cuts across a formation of , it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There are a number of different types of intrusions, including stocks, , , and. Cross-cutting relationships can be used to determine the relative ages of and other geological structures. The pertains to the formation of and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a or a. Inclusions and components The states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions or are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them. Original horizontality The states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization although is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal. Superposition The states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. This is because it is not possible for a younger layer to slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed. Faunal succession The is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or sometimes absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by William Smith almost a hundred years before the publication of 's , the principles of succession were developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, the localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat change in sedimentary strata , and that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time. Lateral continuity Schematic representation of the principle of lateral continuity The states that layers of initially extend laterally in all directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous. As a result, rocks that are otherwise similar, but are now separated by a or other feature, can be assumed to be originally continuous. Layers of sediment do not extend indefinitely; rather, the limits can be recognized and are controlled by the amount and type of sediment available and the size and shape of the. Sediment will continue to be to an area and it will eventually be. However, the layer of that material will become thinner as the amount of material lessens away from the source. Often, coarser-grained material can no longer be transported to an area because the transporting medium has insufficient energy to carry it to that location. In its place, the particles that settle from the transporting medium will be finer-grained, and there will be a lateral transition from coarser- to finer-grained material. The lateral variation in sediment within a is known as. If sufficient sedimentary material is available, it will be deposited up to the limits of the sedimentary basin. Often, the sedimentary basin is within rocks that are very different from the sediments that are being deposited, in which the lateral limits of the sedimentary layer will be marked by an abrupt change in rock type. Inclusions of igneous rocks Multiple melt inclusions in an olivine crystal. Individual inclusions are oval or round in shape and consist of clear glass, together with a small round vapor bubble and in some cases a small square spinel crystal. The black arrow points to one good example, but there are several others. In many respects they are analogous to. Melt inclusions are generally small — most are less than 100 across a micrometre is one thousandth of a millimeter, or about 0. Nevertheless, they can provide an abundance of useful information. Using microscopic observations and a range of chemical techniques and can obtain a range of useful information from melt inclusions. Two of the most common uses of melt inclusions are to study the compositions of magmas present early in the history of specific magma systems. In addition, because they are trapped at high pressures many melt inclusions also provide important information about the contents of volatile elements such as H 2O, CO 2, S and Cl that drive explosive. The study of melt inclusions has been driven more recently by the development of sophisticated chemical analysis techniques. Scientists from the former Soviet Union lead the study of melt inclusions in the decades after Sobolev and Kostyuk, 1975 , and developed methods for heating melt inclusions under a microscope, so changes could be directly observed. Although they are small, melt inclusions may contain a number of different constituents, including glass which represents magma that has been quenched by rapid cooling , small crystals and a separate vapour-rich bubble. They occur in most of the crystals found in igneous rocks and are common in the minerals , , and. The formation of melt inclusions appears to be a normal part of the crystallization of minerals within magmas, and they can be found in both and rocks. Included fragments The is a method of relative dating in. Essentially, this law states that in a rock are older than the rock itself. One example of this is a , which is a fragment of that fell into passing as a result of. Another example is a , which is a that has been eroded from an older and redeposited into a younger one. This is a restatement of 's original principle of inclusions and components from his 1830 to 1833 multi-volume , which states that, with , if or clasts are found in a , then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with occurs when xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as or , and are incorporated, later to cool in the. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them... Planetology Main article: Relative dating is used to determine the order of events on other than Earth; for decades, have used it to decipher the development of bodies in the , particularly in the vast majority of cases for which we have no surface samples. Many of the same principles are applied. For example, if a valley is formed inside an , the valley must be younger than the crater. Craters are very useful in relative dating; as a general rule, the younger a planetary surface is, the fewer craters it has. If long-term cratering rates are known to enough precision, crude absolute dates can be applied based on craters alone; however, cratering rates outside the Earth-Moon system are poorly known. The earth through time 9th ed. Dinosaurs and the History of Life. Stratton, OCR AS and A2 Geology, Pearson Education Limited, 2008, p. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.